8812+Project

=Initial:= toc Assessment of the Dairying of Tomorrow. Deciding whether the following tool for Dairy Farmers is a true measure of sustainability or an educational tool for the benefit of farmers,

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[|http://www.dairyingfortomorrow.com/index.php?id=91#]

=How will living in the 21st century change in relation to environmental sustainability?= = =

Karl Benton West Svatos

Challenges of the 21’st century associated with an ever increasing global shortage of food due population increase include: (i) depletion of soil environments due to intensive agricultural practices relying on productivity, (ii) eutrophication of natural water resources due to inneficient use of fertilisers, and (iii) loss of biodiversity due to other environemntal anthropogenic interactions such as climate change and habitat loss. These three challenges have major scientific, social, political, economic and commercial implications. Technologies offer the best solution to many of these problems. However, there are ethical considerations, many of these solutions are outside the realms of societal knowledge and due to a limitation of understandings such technology cannot be used. However, technology progresses at much faster rates than at which ethical committees and the public opinion can keep up. Therefore it is up to the scientific community to be ethical in its decision making, but also allow for the progression of technology into research and development. This includes collaboration and integration of philosophy through the media and now through the use of social media.

To understand how this works and how this relates to leadership in the 21st century and in relation to my project, one must first look at how the notion of integrated management and farming that take place in our modern post industrial revolution society and see how the ideas and attitudes of people fit into the framework of a fully globalised world. Consumers and farmers are the start and end point in the supply chain of product placement. Sustainability to me is more about maintaining the change rather than an idealistic world or anything like many people think it is. That is all. Integrated management is in a means which can be modeled to sustainability principles, and also to our culture and conscience in our environment. Farming in the future will be somehow integrated within these spaces.

This research is a culmination of 4 years research on soil microbial communities, and will consider the ethics and proposes 2 hypotheses, based on consumers, farmers and corporations and the future.

Introduction:

The future when mixed with social advances and the natural progression of science at an exponential growth factor will see many changes in the natural environment (IOC/UNESCO, IMO, FAO, UNDP 2011). Global population increase, ecological sustainable development framework policy, increased demand for foodstuffs (amoung others) and an exponential increase in modern technologies will all have a significantly large impact on the world’s natural resources in the next 40-50 years including those used in dairy farming.

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This suggested solution is the utilization of modern technologies that have the ability of making our lives simpler. ‘Metagenomic techniques’ (the field that analyses genetic materials recovered directly from environmental samples) has shown that links can be made between land use type and specific, categorised physiological and functional observations of microbial communities and applied at the genetic level. This includes the fields of genetic engineering/modification, gene research and technology and transplantation, bioinformatics, microchip development and potentially cloning of new species. The latter may seem distant yet Moore’s law would suggest otherwise.

This paper will look at the most cutting edge science in relation to the Australian Dairy industry and will attempt to establish the link between consumer behavior choice making, the farming practices that influence consumer choice and the relationship this has with environmentally sustainable development.

Models of relationships between community diversity, abundance and function over particular ecological scales, and land use types are constructed by overlapping the data collection techniques and a particular molecular method which has a specific defined characteristic at the highest functional level (gene function vs. soil characteristics or treatments) (Prosser et al. 2009).

Dairy Australia, the national dairy body, has introduced a sustainability monitoring application which determines an action plan (on their website) in relation to management options related to dairy farming including: (i) soils, (ii) fertilisers, (iii) effluent management, (iv) irrigation, (v) greenhouse gas emissions, (vi) native vegetation and waterways, (vii) energy & water in the dairy, (viii) pests and weeds, (ix) chemicals and (x) farm wastes Accessed 2012.

Soil microbial communities play important roles in soil processes and, the dynamic relationships between them or other physical, chemical and biological properties can be used to estimate soil

microbial diversity and assess the management options for soils (Supaphol et al. 2011). Processes occurring in soils depend largely on the various treatments occurring to the land, due to the relationships between land use type and microbial species diversity, abundance and function for a range of ecosystems (Marzaioli et al. 2010).

Associated agricultural, environmental pressures placed on soil environments hence have the potential to disturb microbial populations that inhabit soils which could place significant stress and strain on productivity of many farming systems including the dairy farming system. The two major Kingdoms studied in this research included Bacteria and Fungi. Both play significant roles in soil environments and hence dairying (Fig 1 and Table 1).

Fig 1: Arbuscular Mycorrhiza

Table 1: Examples of bacteria involved in nutrient transformation in soil

Microbial process

Examples of Bacteria Involved

Solubilisation of minerals

Penicillium sp., Methylobacter sp.

Nitrification

NH3  NO2- : Nitrospira sp., Nitrosomonas sp.

NO2-  NO3 : Nitrobacter sp.

Non-symbiotic N2 fixation

Azospirillum sp., Azobacter sp.

Hydrolysis of urea

Enterobacteriaceae

Denitrification

Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Agrobacterium sp.

Phosphorus transformations

Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus sp., Flavobacterium sp. Rhizobium sp., Mesorhizobium sp. and Sinorhizobium sp.

Environmental Setting Technology:

Mediterranean soils are poor in nutrient binding capability and rely largely on inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus to sustain dairy farming practices. Given that this practice is based on current ecological sustainable development guidelines, it is within acceptable limits, it is not expected that these practices will be changed. This is particularly evident in WA soils. The microbial populations in these dairy soils are likely related to the environmental dynamics that drive nutrient cycling. Therefore in relation to microbial communities the Bacteria and Fungi were studied to see whether the overall microbial diversity was related to soil chemical characteristics or dynamics of N application based on treatment (Plant species clover and ryegrass in 2 controlled temperature glasshouse experiments at UWA. This was achieved via an assessment of the relative abundance and diversity assessment of 16 S rRNA genes using high resolution Ion Torrent® molecular assays (Bacteria). For Fungi; Mycorrhizal colonisation was also determined for a range of nitrogen and phosphorus application rates.

Observations of microbial communities and their potential to manipulate ecosystem processes at a functional level in relation to community dynamics is becoming increasingly important for understanding waste conversion, carbon sequestration and improvements in crop yield (Whiteley et al. 2012). Such observations can be related to functional attributes of the microbes attributed to soil management including both on-farm and off-farm management to reduce environmental impacts (Lauber et al. 2008; Prosser et al. 2009; Li et al. 2012). Therefore, the following experiments were devised. (Exact detail cannot be given)

Experiment 1:

Rhizosphere Plant Species

Nitrogen (N)

Clover

Trifolium

repens

Clover + Rye

Rye

Lolium multiflorum

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Experiment 2:

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Trifolium subterraneum

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Ethical Considerations: The real question in considering the human induced evolution of organisms through technologies is how much different are these processes of forced evolution differ to that of natural selection? Essentially when humans take the genes from something and place them in something else we are speeding up the polymerase chain reaction, the process that enables DNA to self replicate. The genes that make up the DNA molecule within an organism can be transferred through both vertical and horizontal gene transfer. What if any are the actual consequences of this? Does human genetic manipulation of DNA differ to that of gene transfer in the environment? One way to look at it is to ask whether humans exist solely independently of the surrounding environment, or whether humans exist solely dependently of the surrounding environment. We are at the top of the food chain, but does this exclude us from our interaction with the smallest organisms? Either way the technology at our fingertips is evolving too, along with our DNA and the entire global combined DNA also. Is this an independent global process? I would think yes, even if humans were not on earth, unless there was an Armageddon DNA would still continue to exist and evolve without us. Hence ethically although genetic manipulation of microbes and plants and animals may be seen as negative by many people, it does not exclude us from what is happening in nature independently of time.

Results and Discussion:

Differences were observed in the relative abundance of soil microbes in response to nitrogen and plant species as at the levels of Phyla, Class, Order and Family and in terms of the % colonisation of roots by mycorrhizal fungi in Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 respectively (Fig 3).

Fig 3: Pie charts of Diversity and Relative abundance of Bacteria sequences for differing treatments.

The dominance of species associated with dynamic nutrient pathways in soil varied with changes level of nitrogen application and plant species (clover and ryegrass) but not necessarily with soil chemical characteristics measured as data for Experiment 1 (soil data collection).

Mycorrhizal colonisation % was shown to decrease with both increasing N and P. This has

previously been found for P in WA soils but not for N (Fig 4).

Fig 4: Mycorrhizal colonisation % vs N and P concentrations. The lines between the largest Minima and Maxima proportion indicate where a new rep begins. Correlation between both increasing P and N concentrations indicate both have negative impact on % colonisation.

Summary:

Considerable natural heterogeneity in estimates of microbial dominance in the dairy pasture soil was observed among bacteria. This is a result of agricultural practices which are related to land management practices leading to decreases in relative abundance of particular species that prevail in oligotrophic environments which can occur in dairy pastures. Based on the prevailing oligotrophic soil conditions (slightly acidic low nutrient binding capacity and common in Mediterranean climates observed from (Experiment 1), it is assumed that the same conditions are related to mycorrhizal colonisation and that decreasing colonisation would therefore also be related to many of the relationships found in bacterial 16 S rRNA sequencing. This is also the case based on soil similar addition of P and N treatments.

Management practices related to nitrogen application and phosphorus application could possibly be responsible for oligotrophic soil conditions prevailing in WA dairy environments. However further research would need to be carried out to determine whether this suggestion is related to dairy farming or more so to do with surrounding environmental parameters that are a result of the Mediterranean climate and laterite soil profile itself. Furthermore not much information is known in relation to the drivers of oligotrophic soil environments of WA, due to the emergence of metagenomics within the last five year’s accounting for most publications in this field, but none within WA.

Expected differences in biological communities represented in rhizospheres based on N and P supply was observed for both higher P and higher N which decreased colonisation of roots by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. In all experiments this was shown to be the case (p<0.05).

N0

N1

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%colonisation

The dominance of species based on detection of 16 S rRNA Phyla associated with nitrogen cycling varied with the chemical soil properties as shown in CCA (Fig 5) but did not reflect the N treatment and plant growth significance values indicating that plant uptake may have been dominating the overall N speciation in the soil and the Phyla that resulted may have been reflected in this relationship rather than the soil properties themselves.

Fig 5: Phyla black soil properties red (for reflection only)

Dairy ecosystems, the nitrogen and phosphorus cycle, and associated dynamics are vastly different to that of natural, undisturbed ecosystems, due to changes that are induced as a result from creating a system capable of supporting livestock. Bolland and Guthridge (2007a) recommend that fertiliser P should not be applied to dairy pastures in dairy regions until soil testing indicates a deficiency, in order to avoid developing unproductive, unprofitable large surpluses of P in soil. This reduces the likelihood of P leaching and polluting water in the many drains and waterways in the region.

Grasslands and managed pastures emitt various nitrogen and phosphorus compounds into the surrounding environment. These can be modeled and attributed to various land uses (Papale and Valentini 2010). This is important because if we can learn how to best manage these environments based on surrounding physical, chemical and biological processes then we might be able to improve efficiency and sustainability.

Fertilisation (with inorganic nitrogen) must be reduced concurrently with gradually increasing N mineralisation from ever increasing accumulations of organic matter (Barkle et al. 2000). Based on this evidence there must be a focus on increasing fertiliser efficiency in N-fertilisation, reducing transport of reactive N to rivers and groundwater, and maximising de-nitrification to its N2 (g) end product (Kowalchuk and Stephen 2001).

Smeck (1985) explains that biological phosphorus (P) cycling is driven by P in energy transport in biological systems. Mineralisation of organic P occurs in parallel with mineralisation of other elements such as N and sulphur. Phosphorus from excreta is more readily decomposed than that from plant litter and the largest pool of P is usually found below ground in organic form (Davison et al. 1997).

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Reactive organic P supplies some P to the pool available for plant growth, but this component is minor. Inorganic P fertiliser is a major contributor to available soil P, but it is a challenge knowing how to make better use of the large pool of organic P to lower the cost of pasture production (Davison et al. 1997.

Phosphorus fertilisers (e.g. superphosphate), and more recently nitrogen (urea and ammonium sulphate) fertilisers are applied to intensively grazed dairy pastures in southwest WA. Bolland and Guthridge (2007a) recommended that only if soils are deficient in phosphorus should nitrogen be applied. This has implications for dairy farm management because lands in southwest WA commonly receive excess phosphorus and nitrogen (Ridley et al. 2004). Furthermore, Bolland and Guthridge (2007b) recommended that fertiliser P should not be applied to dairy pastures in southwest WA until soil testing indicates likely P deficiency. This is to avoid developing unproductive, unprofitable large surpluses of P in soil and to reduce the likelihood of P leaching and polluting water in the many drains and waterways in the region. Bolland and Guthridge (2007b) suggested that it is profitable to apply fertiliser N to grow extra dry matter consumed by dairy cows; conversely, it is a waste of money to apply N to undergrazed pastures to produce more unused DM.

With respect to time, the nitrogen cycle changes to adapt around the seasons, specifically temperature and rainfall, however more fundamentally around the physical and chemical changes that happen as a result of changes in management in response to consumer demand for their products (Personal Communication Brynley Jenkins).

From Producer to Consumer:

The work presented here is a continuation and supplementary to that which I am doing for my Master’s Degree. It is integration and collaboration, whereby I have now completed the two experiments initially proposed in 8801. Instead now of answering the hypotheses and working toward objectives of the Master’s project, I will fulfill the objectives and hypotheses set out in this Report and continue by proposing two new hypotheses based on the following.

In relation to dairy farming,

 Based on solid scientific evidence.

 Include as much education from an integrated management perspective based on the principles to be put forward in this report.

 Educate people about what is really going on in relation to the choices they make.

 Integrated management is in a way directly proportional to sustainability principles, and indirectly related to our culture, conscience and the environment. Farming in the future will be somehow integrated within this space.

Given that farms must operate within new emerging environmental legislation, all the surrounding environmental dynamics and ecological processes must now be considered within the farm management context if the ultimate goal is sustainability. This is because some of the main drivers of farming success are probably related to emerging niches including; microbial evolution in natural ecosystems, change of microbial diversity, change of abundance and change of function over time.

Having said this careful consideration must be placed on the ethical decision making processes in relation to ecological and evolutionary responses of agro-ecosystems to genetic modification that much of this research relates to. Special consideration needs to be placed on the overall amount and distribution of information in a gene pool of a community, directly applicable to total genetic diversity or complexity in the while community, because the sum of all genetic information is freely available to any other organism via gene transfer (Fierer et al. 2007; Koonin and Wolf 2008; Xu 2010). This has significant implication in relation to genetically modified food and the use of sequencing technology too.

So what determines choice?

Hypotheses:

1.) If consumers are given the option of knowing about all the environmental issues surrounding the price of milk in relation to dairy farming, would there be a net impact on their purchasing choice?

2.) Conversely when farmers are educated on public choice making decisions related to environmental issues, would this largely determine the way they farm land and would this add to overall public environmental awareness from producer to consumer?

…Assessment of the dairying for tomorrow will revolve on deciding whether farming is a true measure of economic and environmental sustainability or an educational tool for the benefit of farmers and corporations. This also affects choice. In terms of ecologically sustainable development of soil ecosystems and dairy farming, I wish to contribute my scientific advice, but I also want to educate people to be able to reflect more on the philosophy of the information that we are being provided with.

“Every revolutionary idea seems to evoke three stages of reaction. They may be summed up by the phrases: 1- It's completely impossible. 2- It's possible, but it's not worth doing. 3- I said it was a good idea all along.” A.C. Clarke

Proposal: To publish in this space. To continue to keep my social community engaged and aware of the many environmental issues associated with Choice, and marketing and the 21st century in terms of globalisation and the increasing information technology revolution.

This will involve mainly incorporation and becoming dynamic in this field. To do this will take time and money.

References:

Barkle GF, Stenger R, Singleton PL, Painter DJ (2000) Effect of regular irrigation with dairy farm effluent on soil organic matter and soil microbial biomass. Australian. Journal of Soil Research 38, 1087–97. Bolland MDA, Guthridge IF (2007a) Determining the fertiliser phosphorus requirements of intensively grazed dairy pastures in south-western Australia with or without adequate nitrogen fertiliser. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47, 801–814. Bolland MDA, Guthridge IF (2007b) Responses of intensively grazed dairy pastures to applications of fertiliser nitrogen in south-western Australia. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47, 927–941.

Davison TM, Orr WN, Doogan V, Moody P (1997b) Phosphorus fertiliser for nitrogen fertilised dairy pastures. 2. Long term effects on milk production and a model of phosphorus flow. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 129, 219–231.

Fierer N, Breitbart M, Nulton J, Salamon P, Lozupone C, Jones R, Robeson, M. Edwards RA, Felts B, Rayhawk S, Knight R, Rohwer F, Jackson RB (2007) Metagenomic and small-subunit rRNA analyses reveal the genetic diversity of bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses in soil. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73, 7059–7066.

Koonin EV, Wolf Y (2008) Genomics of bacteria and archaea: the emerging dynamic view of the prokaryotic world. Nucleic Acids Research 36, 6688–6719.

Kowalchuk GA, Stephen JR (2001) Amonia-oxidising bacteria: A model for molecular microbial ecology. Annual Review of Microbiology 55, 485–529.

Lauber CL, Strickland MS, Bradford MA, Fierer N (2008) The influence of soil properties on the structure of bacterial and fungal communities across land-use types. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 40, 2407–2415.

Li FJ, Dong SC, Fei L (2012) A system dynamics model for analyzing the eco-agriculture system with policy recommendations. Ecological Modelling 227, 34–45.

Marzaioli R, Ascoli RD’, De Pascale RA, Rutigliano FA (2010) Soil quality in a Mediterranean area of Southern Italy as related to different land use types. Applied Soil Ecology 44, 205–212.

Prosser J, Jansson JK, Liu W-T (2009) Nucleic-acid-based characterization of community structure and function. In ‘Environmental Molecular Microbiology’. (Eds. W-T Liu, JK

Jansson) pp. 63–86. (Caister Academic Press: Norfolk U.K.)

Ridley AM, Mele PM, Beverly CR (2004) Legume-based farming in Southern Australia: developing sustainable systems to meet environmental challenges. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 36, 1213–1221.

Smeck NE (1985) Phosphorus dynamics in soils and landscapes. Geoderma 36, 185–199.

Supaphol S, Jenkins SN, Intomo P, Waite IS, O’Donnell AG (2011) Microbial community dynamics in mesophilic anaerobic co-digestion of mixed waste. Bioresource Technology 102, 4021–4027.

Whiteley AS, Jenkins S, Waite I, Kresoje N, Payne H, Mullan B, Allcock R, O'Donnell A (2012) Microbial 16S rRNA Ion Tag and community metagenome sequencing using the Ion 2 Torrent (PGM) Platform. Journal of Microbiological Methods http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2012.07.008

Xu J (2010) Metagenomics and ecosystems biology: conceptual frameworks, tools and methods. In ‘Metagenomics – Theory, Methods, Applications’. (Ed. DM Marco) pp. 1–13. (Caister Academic Press: Norfolk U.K.)